Sterotype of Teh Disney Princess and Sex

The popular Disney Princess line includes nine films (e.g., Snow White, Beauty and the Beast) and over 25,000 marketable products. Gender role depictions of the prince and princess characters were examined with a focus on their behavioral characteristics and climactic outcomes in the films. Results suggest that the prince and princess characters differ in their portrayal of traditionally masculine and feminine characteristics, these gender role portrayals are complex, and trends towards egalitarian gender roles are not linear over time. Content coding analyses demonstrate that all of the movies portray some stereotypical representations of gender, including the most recent film, The Princess and the Frog. Although both the male and female roles have changed over time in the Disney Princess line, the male characters exhibit more androgyny throughout and less change in their gender role portrayals. KeywordsChildren–Disney–Film–Gender–Gender role

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... Το πορτρέτο της ηρωίδας απαρτίζεται από γυναίκες που διαθέτουν φυσική ομορφιά και φυσική αδυναμία (England, Descartes, & Collier-Meek, 2011). Οι ηρωίδες συνήθως εκφράζουν με μεγάλη ευκολία τα συναισθήματά τους, ενώ ταυτόχρονα είναι στοργικές, ευαίσθητες, διαθέτουν αψεγάδιαστη ιδιοσυγκρασία και προσφέρουν βοήθεια σε όποιον τη χρειάζεται. ...

... Συμπεριφορές όπως η απόκτηση εξουσίας, η στωικότητα, η απάθεια, η κατοχή αρχηγικής θέσης, η πρόκληση φόβου και η τέλεση διάσωσης παρουσιάζονται ως μη πρέπουσες για το γυναικείο φύλο (England et al., 2011). Μάλιστα, ιδιαίτερα ισχυρό είναι το μήνυμα που μεταδίδεται στην ταινία «Η Χιονάτη και η επτά νάνοι» ότι οι γυναίκες χωρίς σύζυγο ή οικογένεια είναι νεκρές (Ayres, 1999). ...

... Ορισμένα χαρακτηριστικά θεωρούμενα θηλυπρεπή, όπως η μεγάλη ενασχόληση με την εξωτερική εμφάνιση, η απελπισία, η ντροπή, το κλάμα και το να χάνει κανείς την εξουσία του, τέθηκαν ως απαγορευτικά για το ανδρικό φύλο (England et al., 2011). Συχνή είναι η εκδήλωση περιέργειας αναφορικά με την πριγκίπισσα, επιθυμίας για εξερεύνηση καθώς και η γενναιότητα και οι ηγετικές τους τάσεις. ...

Η παρούσα μελέτη εξετάζει τον τρόπο που το κοινό συζητά για την αναπαράσταση του φύλου μέσω της αλληλεπίδρασής του με τις παιδικές ταινίες. Επιπλέον, ερευνά την επίδραση των παιδικών ταινιών στο κοινό και τη συσχέτιση αυτών με την κοινωνική πραγματικότητα. The purpose of this study is to examine how the audience discuss about the gender representation through its interaction with children's movies. Furthermore, to understand which are the audience's beliefs about the the impact of children's movies in gender perceptions and if they believe that children's movies gender representantion reflects social reality. Date: 1 September 2017 - 1 June 2018

... Disney villains illustrate the "gender-role defiance as deviance" archetype (Hoerrner 1996;Li-Vollmer and LaPointe 2003;Patterson and Spencer 2017;Putnam 2013;Towbin et al. 2004). In particular, female villains tend to possess traits deemed traditionally masculine such as assertiveness and independence (England et al. 2011) and commonly rule with an "iron hand" (Davis 2007, p. 125). The persistence of this pattern is evident in Maleficent, Disney's most popular villain from Sleeping Beauty (1959) 1 (who is also featured in the 2014 reboot of the eponymous saga Maleficent). ...

... Communal traits related to connectedness and expressivity (like supportiveness, compassion, and warmth) are associated with women, while traits like autonomy, agency, and independence (such as dominance, leadership, and powerfulness) are linked to males (Carter 2014;Pillemer et al. 2014). 6 Ubiquitous Disney films expose young children to this restricted definition of suitable female comportment (England et al. 2011;Golden and Jacoby 2018). Furthermore, because women who exercise authority (especially over men) are labeled "power-hungry", a "dominance penalty" may result. ...

... Thus, her reaction could be more about a desire to be among the powerful than about fears of social rejection, consistent with the higher value assigned to the masculine-associated trait of agency versus the feminine trait of communality among leaders (Vial and Napier 2018). In fact, the good fairy, Fauna, notes that Maleficent is ignorant about love, kindness, and the joys of helping others, traits coded as feminine (England et al. 2011;Griffin 2000). ...

• Lauren Dundes
• Madeline Streiff Buitelaar
• Zachary Streiff

Female villains, both fictional and real, are subject to unconscious gender bias when part of their iniquity involves the disruption of male authority. Disney's most popular animated villain, Maleficent, from Sleeping Beauty (1959) and Elizabeth Holmes of the now-disgraced blood testing startup, Theranos, reveled in their power, deviating from idealized feminine propriety. An analysis of scenes featuring Maleficent, the "mistress of all evil", and coverage of Elizabeth Holmes, once the first self-made female billionaire, illustrate how powerful women with hubris are censured beyond their misdeeds. Elizabeth Holmes' adoption of a deep voice and other masculine characteristics parallels Maleficent's demeanor and appearance that signal female usurpation of traditional male power. Both antagonists also engage in finger pricking that penetrates the skin and draws blood, acts associated with symbolic male potency. The purported ability to bewitch, in conjunction with the adoption of patterns associated with male dominance, suggest that Maleficent and Elizabeth Holmes wield power over men and wield the power of men. Discomfort with the way in which magical powers were allegedly employed by these women echo historical fears of witches accused of appropriating male power. Furthermore, powerful women who encroach on male authority but ultimately fail to upend the gender hierarchy trigger schadenfreude beyond that expected from their wrongdoings. In the end, the stories of Maleficent and Elizabeth Holmes celebrate the downfall of women who brazenly embrace power, without showing women how to challenge the gender hierarchy.

... Children develop stereotypes regarding gender at a very early age (Martin & Ruble, 2004), and research indicates that the media provides a powerful avenue for young children to learn cultural ideals regarding gendered behavior and appearance. Several studies have examined gender roles in media targeting children, including advertising (e.g., Bakir & Palan, 2010;Matthes et al., 2016), television programming (e.g., Keys, 2016;Leaper et al., 2002), movies (e.g., Birthisel, 2014;England et al., 2011), and movie posters (Aley & Hahn, 2020), and have consistently demonstrated that characters in children's media reinforce gender stereotypes. Children lack the ability to accurately decipher reality from fantasy or critically evaluate the messages portrayed in media (Harriger, 2012;Li et al., 2015), and are more likely to be affected by the media they consume than adults. ...

... Additionally, a study conducted on the influence of media on children's 'make believe' worlds showed that a larger proportion of boys referenced previously consumed media in their story telling compared to girls (Götz et al., 2005). While research has examined messages regarding traditional masculinity in children's media (e.g., England et al., 2011;Keys, 2016), less attention has been given to whether toxic (i.e., hegemonic) masculinity messages are present in children's media through the portrayals of the humanoid and non-humanoid male characters. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to examine a more extensive set of masculinity themes exhibited by male characters in popular children's animated movies. ...

... Research also indicates that animated television (e.g., Keys, 2016;Leaper et al., 2002;Thompson & Zerbinos, 1995) and movies (e.g., England et al., 2011;Gonzalez et al., 2020;Towbin et al., 2003) targeting children promote gender stereotyped messages. A study of classic Disney films found that male characters were more likely to be portrayed as less emotional, less in control of their sexuality, and stronger and more heroic than female characters (Towbin et al., 2003). ...

Given the significant influence of media on the development of children's beliefs and attitudes regarding gender, it is important to investigate the portrayal of masculinity in children's media. This content analysis sought to examine themes of masculinity expressed by male characters in the 30 top-grossing animated movies for children. Results indicated that masculinity themes were prevalent in children's animated movies regardless of whether the movies featured humanoid or non-humanoid characters. The most common themes reported across the movies included violence, inspires fear, and risk taking. Although more positive traits associated with masculinity, such as leadership and assertiveness, were also present in the movies, we argue that violence and inspiration of fear are characteristics associated with toxic masculinity and may have negative implications for young viewers. We recommend that parents and interested stakeholders monitor the quality of children's media exposure for deleterious messages regarding masculinity and look for ways to enhance media literacy.

... Due to their growing success and popularity among youngsters and even adults, animated films have offered rich data for analysis. Scholars and analysts have applied multiple approaches to analyze animated films including content analysis (e.g., Decker, 2010;England, Descartes, & Collier-Meek, 2011;Fischer, 2010), critical analysis (e.g., Pimentel & Velázquez, 2008;Wormer & Juby, 2016), (post-) feminist analytical approaches (e.g., Macaluso, 2018), thematic analysis (e.g., Patterson & Spencer, 2017) and gender role theory (e.g., Putri, 2017), offering significant findings about representations of gender roles and stereotypes in animated cartoons. However, insufficient attention has been given to applying visual analysis of gender depictions in animations as a visual medium. ...

... Studies of gender representation in animation production have varied. Besides research on sexism and gender stereotyping in animated films (Bazzini et al., 2010;Coyne et al., 2016;Laemle, 2018;Letaief , 2015;Smith et al., 2010), several studies reported the development in the representation of gender roles in animated films (England et al., 2011;Fischer, 2010;and Wiersma, 2000). Wiersma (2000), for instance, examined gender representation in sixteen Disney full-length feature films spanning from 1937 to 1997, applying a qualitative content analysis and a social construction framework. ...

... Furthermore, England et al. (2011) investigated portrayal of the and characters, i.e., their behavioral characteristics and climactic outcomes, in nine selected Disney films. Content coding analyses revealed how early productions (i.e., Snow White, Cinderella, and Sleeping Beauty) exhibit stereotypical gender traits of princes (e.g., brave, physically strong and assertive) and princesses (e.g., helpful, affectionate and fearful). ...

... A "moment" was defined as a time-bounded snapshot during the episode that occurred in one scene (England et al., 2011) and met the following criteria: the leader and follower(s) were working toward a common goal (Kozlowski & Bell, 2003), and the leader addressed the same follower or group of followers. Coders recorded leadership moments in a Qualtrics-based form, noting the moment's timestamp, describing what occurred in the moment, and recording which leadership behaviors and orientations were displayed by which characters. ...

... Six graduate student coders were paired (England et al., 2011), and each pair started coding 25 randomly assigned episodes only after each pair achieved at least 75% reliability on practice episodes. Each pair coded practice episodes over the course of three months and discussed coding criteria weekly with the research team, thus, refining definitions in the coding manual (England et al., 2011;Gerding & Signorielli, 2014). ...

... Six graduate student coders were paired (England et al., 2011), and each pair started coding 25 randomly assigned episodes only after each pair achieved at least 75% reliability on practice episodes. Each pair coded practice episodes over the course of three months and discussed coding criteria weekly with the research team, thus, refining definitions in the coding manual (England et al., 2011;Gerding & Signorielli, 2014). Both practice and actual coding occurred independently-i.e., coders did not discuss their coding with one another. ...

Given the consistently high viewership of television (TV) by youth, the social, behavioral, developmental, and psychological impact of such viewing has been studied for decades. Yet, little research has focused on the connections between youth, the TV shows to which they are exposed, and the characterizations of leadership presented to them. This study examines the type of leadership behaviors and orientations presented through youth TV shows in the United States across a continuum of viewership age targets. Shows were selected through purposeful sampling from the most popular youth TV shows in the United States, and episodes were chosen based on synopsis, selecting for the greatest possibility of leadership scenarios. Researchers identified three shows for each viewer target age group and five episodes for each TV show, for a total of 75 episodes. The findings include the discovery that show-prescribed viewer target age group positively predicted leadership behavior such as direction-setting—i.e., gathering information, organizing information, sense-making, and forecasting. Additionally, as viewer target age range increased, shows presented with a decrease in communal leadership—characterized as caring, warm, trustworthy, empathetic, helpful, and/or friendly. Such findings suggest that the representations of leadership depicted in popular youth TV shows are transmitting potentially counterproductive messages to future leaders, deprioritizing crucial leadership elements.

... Debates on the representation of gender in Disney princess films and the wider phenomenon are situated within the field of Disney, gender and media and communication studies. Some scholars have focused on the franchise as a whole (Davis 2006;England et al. 2011;Stover 2012), whilst others have focused on particular princesses (Craven 2002;Dundes 2001;Edwards 1999;Lester 2010;Ohmer 1993;Stott 2004). Whilst there are merits to both research scopes, analysing the franchise as a whole allows scholars to examine the changes to the princess films as they continue to be released (Davis 2006), as well as compare and contrast those changes (England et al 2011). ...

... Some scholars have focused on the franchise as a whole (Davis 2006;England et al. 2011;Stover 2012), whilst others have focused on particular princesses (Craven 2002;Dundes 2001;Edwards 1999;Lester 2010;Ohmer 1993;Stott 2004). Whilst there are merits to both research scopes, analysing the franchise as a whole allows scholars to examine the changes to the princess films as they continue to be released (Davis 2006), as well as compare and contrast those changes (England et al 2011). Selecting one or two princesses provides an opportunity to analyse the princesses in a greater depth. ...

... Whilst some discussed the centrality of romance (Maity 2014;Hefner et al 2017), and others have analysed merchandise in more depth (Auster & Mansbach 2012;Bryman 1995;Bryman 2010;Stein 2011;Wasko 2001a;Wohlwend 2009), the central argument within the study of Disney princesses is whether the heroines have progressed (Davis 2006;Davis 2014a;Hine et al 2018b;Hoerrner 1996;Itmeizeh & Ma'ayeh 2017;Lacroix 2004;Rozario 2004;Wasko 2001a;Zarranz 2007) or regressed (Maio 1998;Rudloff 2016;Stover 2012;Whelan 2012;Zipes 1999) with time. Others simply examine the gender roles within the princess films (Craven 2002;Dundes 2001;Dundes et al 2018;England et al 2011;Streiff and Dundes 2017a;Streiff and Dundes 2017b), but do not necessarily compare and contrast them to the rest of the princess line. In many cases, it is beyond the scope of the journal articles where the research is outlined for the scholars to be able to go into depth on how depictions of gender have changed. ...

• Robyn Muir

Disney princess films and marketing have captured the hearts of children and adults all over the world. However, they may also contain gendered messages that reinforce traditional societal expectations of men and women. This thesis examines the Disney princesses, a worldwide commercial and cultural phenomenon that made $1.686bn just in 2018 (The Licensing Letter 2019). The Disney princesses are 16 royal women featured within animated Disney and Pixar films that are loved by young girls across the globe. This research will explore the Disney princess phenomenon, aiming to answer the following research question: 'How is femininity depicted within the Disney princess phenomenon?' through facet methodology. I examine the role of femininity through three facets. Firstly, by examining the models of femininity depicted in Disney princess films using textual analysis. Secondly, the identified models are used as a framework to examine which models of femininity are dominant in Disney princess merchandising and marketing experiences. Content analysis and interviews supplement this research. Thirdly, I build on this framework once more by examining which models of femininity are dominant within princess park experiences through autoethnography. I identified five 'waves' of femininity within the princess films: passive dreamers, lost dreamers, active leaders, sacrificing dreamers and innovative leaders. Each wave demonstrated characteristics that adhered to psychological understandings of femininity and masculinity. It was found that as more masculine attributes were introduced, the princess' behaviour would be policed by the introduction of a romantic relationship. The most dominant model of femininity within princess merchandising was the innovative leaders due to the heavy marketing of Anna and Elsa (Frozen 2013). Without the sisters, it was the passive and lost dreamers who dominated. Within princess park experiences, the singular character trait of female support was most central, being depicted by active and innovative leaders. Overall, the most dominant model of femininity within the princess consumer experiences was the innovative leaders due to the heavy marketing of the Frozen sisters. Without them, it was the passive dreamers who were most dominant. This thesis has provided an exploratory and holistic examination of the Disney princess phenomenon in its key representations: films, merchandising and marketing, and princess park experiences. It also has provided an up to date analysis of non-franchised and franchised princesses, including the recently released Frozen II (2019), adding further depth to the phenomenon. The film analysis framework created for this research is a transferable and adaptable structure that can be used by future researchers to analyse a phenomenon of their choice. This research is a lens in which to view and understand how a global phenomenon such as the Disney princesses can contribute to the depiction of femininity within popular culture. I have identified micro changes within the phenomenon due to the in-depth nature of my analysis. It has provided a deeper insight to the 16 heroines in order to highlight how the phenomenon has changed and developed over time.

... The growth of media has gained momentum since the control of broadcast media in the United States has been consolidated into the hands of six corporations, one of which is The Walt Disney Company (McChesney, 2000; W. F. X. T., 2020). This has scholars questioning the distribution of media and the influence of each company's agenda (England, 2011;Hine, 2018;Menise, 2019). After 97 years of business, Disney has an estimated net worth of $140 billion (Bleznak, 2020). ...

... From the Frozen merchandise franchise alone, Disney has brought in over 107.2 billion in retail sales (Horton, 2019). Disney is not just known for films they make, but their presence in marketing on anything related to children's merchandise (Azmi, 2018;England, 2011;Golden, 2018;Hine, 2018;Maity, 2014;Menise, 2019). ...

... "Content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use" (Krippendorff, 1980). Content analysis has been a proven method of research for this particular setting (Arnold, 2015;Davis, 2014;England, 2011;Garabedian, 2015;Hynes, 2010;Itmeizeh, 2017). This comparative content analysis study was strategically selected as it has not yet been analyzed. ...

• Hadassa Oliveira

With the pandemic caused by the new corona virus, many businesses had to close their doors, including beauty salons around the world. With this in mind, this study sought to analyze the speech given by the American presenter Ainsley Earhardt of "FOX & Friends", about the need to go "to fix the hair and do the nails" during the pandemic. Her comment was controversial and Public Opinion revealed interesting interpretations in this regard. Therefore, this study based on the concepts of "primining" - this being the relationship between event/event and its target, and through the Critical Discourse Analysis method, sought to better analyze what meanings the presenter's speech can reveal and what reflexes her speech caused in the media and among her audience. Keywords: Pandemic. Speech. Female beauty. Public opinion. International Multidisciplinary Research Journal - ISSN 2424-7073. https://imrjournal.info/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Paper-Proceedings-CGWS2021.pdf @Canadian International Conference on Gender & Women's Studies 2021

... Like males, the depiction of females has also undergone a change (Gauntlett, 2008;Long et al., 2010;Poerwandari et al., 2014;Sandonato, 2014). The most positive change which has been observed is a significantly larger number of female protagonists (Ahmad, 2002;England et al., 2011;Gauntlett, 2008;Zeisler, 2008) as well as the inclusion of slightly older and more mature females in leading roles. Women are increasingly being shown as confident, resourceful, assertive and in control of their lives (England et al., 2011;Gauntlett, 2008;Long et al., 2010;Panitchpakdi, 2007;Zheng, 2011). ...

... The most positive change which has been observed is a significantly larger number of female protagonists (Ahmad, 2002;England et al., 2011;Gauntlett, 2008;Zeisler, 2008) as well as the inclusion of slightly older and more mature females in leading roles. Women are increasingly being shown as confident, resourceful, assertive and in control of their lives (England et al., 2011;Gauntlett, 2008;Long et al., 2010;Panitchpakdi, 2007;Zheng, 2011). Further, women are being shown more often as career women (Gauntlett, 2008;Pérez, 2005;Sandonato, 2014) who also excel at running their homes (Long et al., 2010;Panitchpakdi, 2007). ...

... Findings of the study revealed that although there were significant changes in depiction of both the genders, the changes did not follow a linear path from better to worse (Chaudhry, 2016;Gerbner et al., 1978) or a continuation of the worse as found by many others (Gauntlett, 2008;Gerbner et al., 1978;Maclean, 2011;Poerwandari et al., 2014;Verhellen et al., 2016;Zeisler, 2008;Zheng, 2011). Although some literature had suggested a slight improvement in the depiction of both males (Gauntlett, 2008;Long et al., 2010;Pérez, 2005) and females (Ahmad, 2002;England et al., 2011;Gauntlett, 2008;Long et al., 2010;Panitchpakdi, 2007;Pérez, 2005;Poerwandari et al., 2014;Sandonato, 2014;Walderzak, 2016b;Zeisler, 2008;Zheng, 2011), this was only partially supported as contrary to expectation female portrayal significantly improved in the most recent times but the depiction of the males was the worst possible. However, the evidence leads to the conclusion that the changes in the portrayal cannot possibly be due to the changing times; changes due to globalization and greater awareness of the audiences as had this been the case, the changes would have followed a more linear path for both genders. ...

• Qurat-ul-Ain Malik
• Bushra Hameed-ur-Rahman
• Qurratulann Malik

period was subdivided into five decades to observe whether there had been a change over the years keeping in view the massive changes which had taken place in society. Findings indicated that although there were differences in gender depiction between the five decades for both the genders yet the changes were not linear which pointed to the role of other factors such as government policies which could have contributed to ABSTRACT The research was aimed at analysing gender portrayal in TV drama in Pakistan over a period of five decades from its very inception in the late 1960's till 2017. The research explored what types of gender stereotypes were being propagated in the prime time drama serials on the State owned TV channel, PTV which was the only platform available for most part of this duration. The methodology adopted for the research was quantitative in nature and involved a content analysis of the most popular Urdu serials aired between 1968 and 2017. The research focused on the three main characters in each drama and the total sample comprised 72 characters. These characters were analysed in a total of 4834 scenes to observe the display of gender stereotypes. The findings indicated that although overall both the genders were displaying their gender specific stereotypes yet some stereotypes such as bravery and aggressiveness were not being displayed by males and passivity, victimization and fearfulness were not being displayed by females. Later the 50 year time Qurat-ul-Ain Malik and Bushra Hameed-ur-Rahman 490 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 29 (1): 489-508 (2021) the increasing and decreasing stereotyping over the years.

... Several studies have found that princesses tend to be gender stereotyped which may send limiting messages to young girls (England, Descartes, & Collier-Meek, 2011). These stereotypes include a thin, beautiful ideal, as well as submissive, emotional, and nurturing behavior (England et al., 2011). ...

... Several studies have found that princesses tend to be gender stereotyped which may send limiting messages to young girls (England, Descartes, & Collier-Meek, 2011). These stereotypes include a thin, beautiful ideal, as well as submissive, emotional, and nurturing behavior (England et al., 2011). Disney Princesses are chronologically divided into three main categories; first generation, (beginning with the release of Snow White in 1937 and ending in 1959 with the release of Sleeping Beauty), second generation (Little Mermaid in 1989to Mulan in 1998, and third generation (Princess andthe Frog in 2009 to Moana in 2016), which is where our study participants reside (Historical Timeline of the Disney Princess, 2020). ...

... It is possible that princesses model behavior that is less consistent with hegemonic masculinity. Though many princesses are gender stereotyped (England et al., 2011), princesses have dramatically changed over the past decade (third generation), with some authors suggesting that princess films are becoming more feminist and are gradually moving away from the hegemonic masculinity that was common in previous eras Hine, Ivanovic, et al., 2018;Streiff & Dundes, 2017;Venkat, 2015). This progress may be why associations between princess culture and attitudes toward women were stronger for girls, who may identify more closely with the princesses, than for boys (Coyne et al., 2016). ...

Princess culture is criticized for contributing to gender stereotypes and poor body esteem, however, there is little longitudinal research examining these claims. This study examines associations between engagement with princess culture during early childhood and gender stereotypes, body esteem, and adherence to hegemonic masculinity in early adolescence. Participants included 307 children (51% female, Mage = 4.83 years, 87% White) who completed questionnaires at two time points, 5 years apart. The results indicated that early engagement with princess culture was not associated with later adherence to female gender stereotypes. However, princess engagement was associated with lower adherence to norms of hegemonic masculinity and higher body esteem. Socioeconomic status and gender moderated the results. Effect sizes were small to moderate. The changing nature of Disney princesses is discussed in the context of gender development across childhood.

... Specifically, gender schema theory suggests that exposure to mediated representations of gender can lead viewers to adapt worldviews that only match those media representations. In other words, youth animation provides a rich field to study what is learned, what is reinforced, and how children process gender categories (England, Descartes, & Collier-Meek, 2011). ...

... Media created for young girls are at once problematic and promising. On the one hand, they can be problematic when they solely reinforce patriarchal gender norms, in which female characters are passive, domesticated prototypes judged by their physical appearance (England et al., 2011;Sharmin & Sattar, 2018). On the other hand, media producers have begun to infuse "girl power" and "progirl" themes that promote ambitious, independent female characters (Hains, 2009). ...

... Most pertinent to this study is the Disney Princess line, a $5.5 billion branding initiative between Disney's film and merchandising divisions that showcases its flagship heroines aimed at young girls (Suddath, 2015). The popularity and global reach of Disney and its subsidiary Pixar has made it a target of intense feminist scrutiny (Coyne, Linder, Rasmussen, Nelson, & Birkbeck, 2016;England et al., 2011;Sharmin;Sattar, 2018). ...

• Kristen Schiele
• Lauren Louie
• Steven Chen

Feminism's reemergence in the mainstream has forced businesses and media organizations to be aware of and even to promote gender issues relevant to the marketing of their products, services, and brands, especially those that target young female consumers. Business scholarship has offered marketing guidelines for gendered representations, but most studies have occurred in adult consumption spheres, with less attention paid to feminist messaging in youth media. Through a thematic analysis of 17 Disney and Pixar animated films produced between 1989 and 2018 and featuring a female lead or colead, this study offers a blueprint that could help businesses develop feminist messaging in marketing communications and media directed at young female consumers. While businesses might understand that promoting positive gendered messages is necessary in the current era of heightened feminist awareness, few firms actually do it. And for the companies that do it, integrating feminist messages in a way that does not alienate mainstream consumers might prove challenging. This study's framework, which emerges from an empirical study of Disney and Pixar media, helps reduce some of these creative barriers.

... Despite the lack of definitive boundaries around the princess role, princess play is often socioculturally understood within narrow parameters, as a form of pretend play singularly suitable for young girls (Madrid and Kantor, 2009). For this reason, the majority of the available research on princess play is obsessed with chronicling the restrictiveness of this game, especially when it comes to girls' developing perspectives on gender roles and femininity (e.g., Coyne et al., 2016;England et al., 2011;Golden and Jacoby, 2018). Yet childhood play is as diverse as childhood gender expression, a nuance that is problematically absent from the pre-existing literature on princess play. ...

... 309). While this conclusion may be true for stereotypical reenactments of this roleplaying game, scholars who are quick to dismiss princess play as productive in any capacity end up misrepresenting this game as one-dimensional (Coyne et al., 2016;England et al., 2011). Even among young girls, this reductive assessment of princess play erases the potential for creative, autonomous decision making on the part of children who play it on their own, with their peers, or-in the case of Elsa-Anna and Broolala (the self-selected pseudonyms of the current study's focal children)with the author, in this case. ...

... The significant moments of non-stereotypical princess play presented in this paper reveal how robust results can be produced during play-based research conducted in settings familiar to and comfortable for child participants like Elsa-Anna and Broolala (see Tables 1 and 2). Thus, this case study explores the legitimacy of the idea that princess play is somehow always harmful to young children, and especially girls (Coyne et al., 2016;England et al., 2011;Golden and Jacoby, 2018). By challenging paradigms of data collection within early childhood education (ECE), the current study asks this guiding question: ...

• Cayley Burton

Many children, but predominantly young girls, gravitate towards princess play. In response to previous academic findings suggesting that princess play is always detrimental to young children's developing perspectives of femininity, this qualitative study explores the potential for gender-creativity during this roleplaying game. In an effort to refute the pre-existing literature, the current case study asks the following question: To what extent does princess play offer creative or confining possibilities for childhood feminine expression? While much of the literature in early childhood education (ECE) indicates that Disney is the sole inspiration for every child's construction of this imagination game, the findings in this article indicate that Disney is one influence among many for focal participants. Using open coding to analyze data generated during play-based interviews with two cisgender girls, this article demonstrates that the creative possibilities of princess play remain underrepresented in research. Although princess play offers only partial potential for non-stereotypical feminine expression, gender normativity can be actively challenged, especially when adults support and encourage unconventional formats of princess play during early childhood.

... Others have focused on textual or functional analyses of transmedia supersystems such as Batman (Meehan, 2004;Roman & McAllister, 2012), Bratz (McAllister, 2007;Valdivia, 2009), Disney Princesses (Do Rozario, 2004;England, Descartes, & Collier-Meek, 2011), Lego (Johnson, 2013a) and Pokémon (Buckingham & Sefton-Green, 2003), without analysing how children encounter these systems through play. There also exists a large volume of research on pretend play, however, it has generally remained in the area of psychological or developmental inquiry (for an overview see Fein, 1981;Rubin, Fein, & Vandenberg, 1983). ...

... Disney's first generation of fairy tale films, released from 1937-1959, such as Snow White and Cinderella, were characterized by passive female protagonists tasked with largely domestic roles and damsel in distress romantic tropes (Bell, 1995). The second generation, released from 1989-2009, beginning with The Little Mermaid, and culminating in The Princess and the Frog, involved a switch to more active roles for the princesses, notably in advocating for themselves and demonstrating bravery, however, the final rescues were still performed mainly by the male characters, and the narratives were resolved via heteronormative romantic endings (England et al., 2011). Although in this second generation of films "heroism, egalitarianism, and autonomy are slipped into the conventions of Disney princesshood" (Do Rozario, 2004, p. 47), these aspects do not become embedded until the third generation of films. ...

• Tifanie Valade

North American children are growing up in a media-saturated landscape. Since the deregulation of children's television in the 1980s in the United States, an explosion of intertextual transmedia franchises has resulted in Canadian children being surrounded by not only film and television texts, but also by media-based toys and merchandise. Market segmentation means these toys and related items are highly gendered, with themes that include femininity, passivity, appearance and friendship for girls, and hegemonic masculine ideals including dominance, aggression, militarism and competitiveness for boys. This investigation undertakes an observation of children at a daycare and a preschool, in Montreal, engaged in pretend play utilizing media-based toys and dress-up costumes to understand what types of gender discourses circulate through play with these items. Results indicate that the gendered themes evident in the media-based toys and narratives are taken up by the children and become part of their everyday play worlds, exacerbating gender policing among peers. However, aspects of gender discourses are also contested as some children take pleasure in subverting gender norms, or turning submissive roles into more agentic positions in play. The production history and content of some of the media-based franchises are also examined, as well as pedagogical approaches that may prevent critiques of hegemonic gender discourses in the early childhood education environment.

... Apart from weight stereotypes, studies have demonstrated the presence of gender-stereotyped messages in children's animated films (England, Descartes, & Collier-Meek, 2011), which reflect the existing stereotypical role models in society (Gökçearslan, 2010). Male characters are typically depicted as physically strong, athletic, and brave, whereas female characters are usually portrayed as weak, helpful, thin, and good-looking (Aley & Hahn, 2020;England et al., 2011). ...

... Apart from weight stereotypes, studies have demonstrated the presence of gender-stereotyped messages in children's animated films (England, Descartes, & Collier-Meek, 2011), which reflect the existing stereotypical role models in society (Gökçearslan, 2010). Male characters are typically depicted as physically strong, athletic, and brave, whereas female characters are usually portrayed as weak, helpful, thin, and good-looking (Aley & Hahn, 2020;England et al., 2011). These media messages can influence children's own gender identity development as they learn from the social environment how they are expected to be and behave depending on their gender (Aley & Hahn, 2020;Lemish, 2015). ...

This study conducted a content analysis of 130 characters from 24 recent popular animated children's films and examined the associations between physical appearance, personality, and social attributes by gender. We found that physical attractiveness was associated with having more friends and receiving more affection among male characters, and negatively associated with weight status among females. Also, wearing close-fitting clothes was associated with attractiveness among females and with popularity, musculature, and strength among males. However, being muscular, stronger, and taller was associated with less intelligence among males. Regarding gender-stereotyped body ideals, female characters were portrayed as slimmer and attractive more frequently than males, who tended to be larger, muscular, and stronger. Results suggest that mainstream media's narrow and stereotypically gendered appearance standards are prevalent in content aimed at children and highlight the need for continuing research examining their impact on children's body image and gender development.

... An analysis of gender in fairy tales is not a new endeavour (Zipes 1987;England, Descartes, and Collier-Meek 2011;Heerspink 2012). Over many decades, scholars have tried to identify gender stereotypes, gendered content and any potential harm this could cause to children (Liebermann 1972;Yolen 1977;Nanda 2014). ...

... There seems to be an agreement among many scholars that fairy tales provide children important messages about gender roles (Liebermann 1972;Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz 2003;England, Descartes, and Collier-Meek 2011). Even though these messages are outdated, fairy tales continue to endure and play a key role in reproducing gender stereotypes. ...

• Torill Aud
• Aud Torill Meland

The aim of this study is to explore ECEC-teachers' attitudes toward gender through a transformation of the classic fairy tale 'The Princesses and The Pea'. The stereotypes presented in fairy tales can be limiting for children today because they can reinforce traditional ideals of femininity and masculinity. The Norwegian ensemble Dybwikdans challenge gender stereotypes in 'The Princess and The Pea'. In the performance, the princess acts strong and brave, the king feminine and vain. Findings that are based on interviews indicate that the teachers are not concerned with gender stereotypes in fairy tales; they have a set of stereotyped expectations about how females and males are portrayed, but a transformation of an old story provides an opportunity to explore and challenge traditional gender roles.

... Kiedy współtowarzysze odkrywają, że jest kobietą, traci ich szacunek, przyjaźń, a nawet zasługuje na śmierć. Ostatecznie wraca do swojej kobiecości, ale już na swoich zasadach, bez narzucania sztywnych schematów postępowania, które były ważne dla jej matki oraz babci (England, Descartes, Collier-Meek 2011). Mulan pokazuje, że księżniczka może także być waleczna i dzielna, nie musi być reprezentacją typowej kobiecości. ...

... Nigdy wcześniej żadna protagonistka Disneya z tej serii nie zajmowała się niczym poza "zawodem" bycia księżniczką. Właśnie ten wątek uderzył w grupy walczące z rasizmem (England, Descartes, Collier-Meek 2011 ...

• Rafał Kubicki

Summary The paper presents the closer discussion of last will documents drawn up by representatives of the ruling elites in Gdańsk Main City and Elbląg Old Town in the late Middle Ages, mostly in the second half of the 15th c. In determining membership among the city's ruling elites, the formal criterion will be used, related to the city offices held by the respective persons: the commune head (German: Vogt), city court head (German: Schulz), treasury administrator (German: Kämmerer), juror (German: Schöffe), and, finally, the mayor (German: Bürgermeister). The background for this presentation were previous analyses of historians, devoted to the image of the communities and ruling groups of both cities, in the first place based on other urban provenance sources, depicting their activity in the public and private spheres. Detailed analyses concerned with the problem formulated in this manner need to be prefixed with a characteristic of the source base which is at pour disposal nowadays. An important circumstance, severely limiting the results of analyses presented here, is the fact that the obligation of writing one's testament did not yet exist at that time. Usually there was even no such need, since the rules for inheriting property were specified in the appropriate articles of Chełmno law (Gdańsk Main City) and Lübeck law (Elbląg Old Town). The largest bequests were usually made for one's parochial church, significantly smaller ones for numerous monasteries and hospitals within the city and outside of it, and the least went for the poor. The behaviour patterns of testators from Gdańsk and Elbląg do not deviate in this regard from those observed also in other European cities. In some testaments dispositions for religious purposes are absent altogether. This does not, however, mean that such burghers did not earmarked some of their wealth for that purpose. Probably they made such donations in another form than testament disposal.

... Exposure to consistent depictions of "good guys" and "bad guys", "leaders" and "followers" in illustrated storybooks, film, television, ritual, art, and iconography 18,19,20,21 may lead different individuals within a society to acquire similar face-trait mappingsso-called consensus impressions. Other, more 'idiosyncratic' mappings may be acquired as a result of direct social interactions with others 12,22,23,24,25,26 . ...

People have a strong and reliable tendency to infer the character traits of strangers based solely on facial appearance. In five highly powered and pre-registered experiments, we investigate the relative merits of learning and nativist accounts of the origins of these first impressions. First, we test whether brief periods of training can establish consistent first impressions de novo. Using a novel paradigm with Greebles—a class of synthetic object with inter-exemplar variation that approximates that seen between individual faces—we show that participants quickly learn to associate appearance cues with trustworthiness (Experiments 1 and 2). In a further experiment, we show that participants easily learn a two-dimensional structure in which individuals are presented as simultaneously varying in both trustworthiness and competence (Experiment 3). Crucially, in the final two experiments (Experiments 4 and 5) we show that, once learned, these first impressions occur following very brief exposure (100 ms). These results demonstrate that first impressions can be rapidly learned and, once learned, take on features previously thought to hold only for innate first impressions (rapid availability). Taken together, these results highlight the plausibility of learning accounts of first impressions.

... Davis believes that female characters are the most transparently constructed in animation films and that the cultural constructs that generate them are most readily observable (p 29) in this popular genre of cultural production. England et al. [4] conducted their comparative study on the female protagonists of the Disney princess franchise vis-à-vis their male counterparts-the princes. These authors note that despite the generally non-traditional depiction of the personalities of the princes and princesses in these animated movies, the characters with whom viewers are meant to empathize are still coded to retain certain stereotypical representations of gender, especially the female protagonists (p 555). ...

... O cinema de animação conheceu com a produção da Walt Disney um incremento notável ao nível da produção e distribuição de filmes, cujo o imaginário se encontrava fortemente marcado pela presença de princesas, príncipes, fadas e personagens com atributos, que se alinhavam com os padrões da época (England, Descartes e Collier-Meek 2011). Além do género (Oka e Laurenti 2018), este meio de construção social espelhava ainda questões como, a orientação sexual, a raça (Lévi-Strauss 1980), questões laborais e relações de poder (Towbin et al. 2003). ...

• Sílvia R. B. Pinto
• Bruna Banon

This article reflects on the territory of Media Theory, as a platform for reflection on gender issues. Thus, we face the possibility of opening the discursive space entitled "Cinema and its contribution to the perception of the current world", to the universe of animation. Our observations were directed towards the construction and deconstruction of stereotypes related to the female figure, in social and cultural contexts, in the east and in the west.. In this scenario, female Disney characters were analyzed, observing the transition from the princess imaginary, beautiful but with little autonomy to the heroine character, endowed with beauty, strength and autonomy and the heroines present in Anime.

... Ezzel szemben a férfi karakterek erősek, dominánsak. (England, Descartes & Collier-Meek, 2011). ...

• Eva Markus
• Baumgartner Bence

Die wissenschaftliche Arbeit behandelt die Bewahrung der Mundart der Ungarndeutschen. Das Hauptziel war die Vorstellung der ungarndeutschen Geschichte und Volkskunde. Die ungarndeutschen Mundarten stehen leider vor dem Aussterben, deshalb ist die Sammlung und Dokumentation der verschiedenen Wörter notwendig. Die gesammelten Dialektwörter können den Lehrpersonen dabei helfen, die ungarndeutsche Sprache zu lehren. Die Kinder können somit auch der ungarndeutschen Sprache näherkommen.

... These preferences are not surprising because both the Disney Princess (Goudreau 2012) and Superhero (Santiago 2017) lines are extremely profitable and are marketed to young children. Both these genres also portray strong traditional gender stereotypes for boys and girls (see Baker and Raney 2007;England et al. 2011;Murnen et al. 2003). ...

Wearing costumes is a common experience during early childhood and is often important to sociodramatic play. Costumes tend to be highly gendered for both girls and boys (such as princess and superhero costumes). However, there is very little research on the impact that wearing costumes has on gender-differentiated behavior, such as toy preference, prosocial behavior, or perseverance during early childhood. The current study included 223 U.S. children, aged between 3 and 5 years-old. Children were assigned to wear either a gendered, counter-gendered, or gender-neutral costume, and they then took part in three gender-related tasks. There was no impact of wearing costumes on any task for girls. However, boys preferred feminine toys significantly more when wearing a neutral costume when compared to a masculine-typed one. Additionally, boys were significantly less likely to help when wearing a masculine-typed costume compared to a feminine-typed costume. There are several implications of these findings that are discussed in the paper. Parents may wish to purchase a wide range of costumes for their child for sociodramatic play, particularly for boys. Therapists could also potentially use costumes during play therapy to discuss gender issues. Additionally, costume producers could consider marketing a wide range of costumes for children as opposed to largely focusing on gendered ones.

... Paul evaluated the stereotypical representation of male protagonists in Bollywood movies and found that mostly, men are depicted with the macho, strong and easy-going features that soon become society's accepted norm for male behaviour [21]. Even in animated movies the representation of male characters as brave, chivalrous, and smart continues to exist [5]. Popular Indian animated shows like Chota Bheem show the same idea. ...

• Sarthak Paliwal
• Thangbiakching Guite

Media, especially films, are highly influential for the audiences in shaping their thoughts, ideas, morals and beliefs-be it with regard to society, norms, relationships and ways of life. Media also exposes society to new cultures, social practices and individuals, which may become an influencing factor in the collective attitude formation about groups and their practices. The film-makers caters to the society in a given timezone through the elements they show in their movies. Thus, a critical analysis of movies can reflect in detail about the elements that existed in a society at a particular point of time in history. The paper, thus, attempts to analyse Bollywood's highly grossing film, Kuch Kuch Hota Hai. The movie was chosen for the precise reason that it is still considered as one of Bollywood's all-time favourite romantic movie, and is listed as one of the 50 films that changed Bollywood movie. It is still celebrated by the masses, as it recently celebrated its 20 th year anniversary. The pattern of the movie still persists in newer movies too. The analysis of the movie revealed stereotypical representation of minority communities, a contradicting representation of Indian and Western cultures and societal norms for men and women that were prevalent in the society. The analysis gave us insight into understanding the archetypal root of the characters in the movie, the shadow elements that are at play, the projections, and the content of the cultural (collective) unconscious that discerned the cultural portrayal that happens in movies often. Overall, the analysis gave us purview the social practices that are prevalent in our culture and society at large.

... From its release in November 2019 until April 2020, Disney Plus attracted subscriptions in excess of 50 million (Swartz 2020). The corporate juggernaut's expanding dominance has resulted in calls to examine the values promulgated in its programming, with the perpetuation of gender stereotypes among the chief concerns (Dundes et al. 2018(Dundes et al. , 2019England et al. 2011;Streiff and Dundes 2017a;Towbin et al. 2004) even as some scholars are sanguine about progress in Disney's portrayal of women's agency (Hine et al. 2018b;Leader 2018). ...

• Lauren Dundes

Princess Merida, the "tomboy" princess in Disney/Pixar's Brave, won praise for escaping the strictures of femininity and maternal demands for feminine propriety. In addition to her overt defiance of gender roles and demand for agency, Merida also enacts hegemonic masculinity by mocking her suitors during an archery contest in which she is the prize. The ridicule is the prelude to her dramatic, winning bullseye that feminizes the men, in a scene rich in symbolism about gender and power. In enacting the final phase of the tomboy paradigm, however, Merida reverses her trajectory as her rebellion against femininity ebbs. She then resolves conflict by displaying vulnerability rather than performing brave deeds. This marked shift to a more traditional gender role raises questions about her stature as a model of autonomy able to withstand the pressure to conform.

... However, Disney movies presented male character as brave, strong and dominating who are always busy to support female characters and provide them protection whereas the females are shown attractive, fascinating, compassionate, submissive and erotic (England, Descartes & Collier-Meek, 2011).It was stressed that men and women characters in Cartoon Network are presented in conventional style and such representation has significant impact on conception related to the features of male and female among the society (Ahmed &Wahab, 2014). ...

... Saladino (2014) demonstrated that girls of today are turning their lives from the expected gender roles to the career motivated and adventure. Golden & Jacoby (2018) demonstrated that the nature of animated movies especially, the female lead animated ones, has changed as the mass media were exposing to the young audience a limited and static image for women (England et al., 2011;Linn, 2009). ...

• Shrook A. Fathy
• Prof. Amany S. Fahmy

This study aims to know the Egyptian adolescents' perception towards gender roles; coinciding with the evolution of the female lead animated movies. Being affected by the third and the fourth wave of feminism in American society and its effect on Egyptian adolescents; since animated movies are mainly American produced. The study found that Egyptian adolescents perceive the female role in the society to be independent decision-maker and has her own rights, reassuring that women hold much more work-load than men and her biggest enemy and fighter is the society itself, not her capabilities, while animation movies from 2012 till 2018 hold more muscular personality traits and behavioral traits than feminine ones.

מחקרים שעוסקים בייצוגים מגדריים בתוכניות לילדים מציגים ממצאים שונים ולעיתים סותרים ביחס לייצוגים מגדריים. לצד מחקרים המוצאים כי סטריאוטיפים מגדריים מסורתיים משועתקים, ישנם אחרים המוצאים כי בתכנים מסוימים ישנם חידושים המאתגרים את הסטריאוטיפים השמרניים. במצב זה, המחקר הנוכחי בוחן בצורה מקיפה ומעמיקה את הייצוגים והמסרים המגדריים בתוכניות לילדים לגיל הרך (גיל לידה ועד שש) בישראל, בעזרת מחקר איכותני וכמותי, היוצא מגישה תיאורטית שרואה בתוכניות סוכנות חיברות ומבנות מציאות בהקשר המגדרי עבור ילדים בגיל הרך. הניתוח נערך על מדגם של 64 שעות שידור, משמונה ערוצי טלוויזיה המיועדים לילדים בגיל הרך בישראל. הממצאים מציגי ם תמונה מגוונת ומורכבת ביחס ל ייצוג המגדרי המלמדים, כי ישנה שמרנות לצד חדשנות בנושא של ייצוגים ומסרים מגדריים בתוכניות לילדים לגיל הרך בישראל. הניתוח הכמותי מצביע על ייצוג רב יותר של גברים לעומת נשים, ועל יתרון לדמויות הגברים מבחינת מרכזיות בעלילה והתפקידים המיוחסים להן לעומת דמויות הנשים. לעומת זאת, הניתוח האיכותני העלה כי ישנו שינוי בייצוג הנשים המאתגר את הסטריאוטיפים המקובלים. נמצאו נשי ם אגרסיביות שמניעות את העלילה, נשים תחרותיות ונשים המשלבות רציונאליות ולוחמנות עם רגשנות. דמויות הנשים נעות ומתנהלות במרחבים ציבוריים ופרטיים כאח ד, ויש להן מגוון רחב של תפקידים וביניהם דמויות טיפוליות ולוחמות, נסיכות לצד ראשות עיר ושריף אישה. ממצאים אלה מלמדים על קיומה של חדשנות בתוך מסגרת שמרנית. השילוב מוסבר בצורך של מפיקים ובעלי ערוצים להתאים עצמם לתרבות ולחברה הישראלית, ברצון שלהם שלא להיתפס כחתרניים, אך בה בעת לבטא ערכים ליברליים ולספק תמונה שוויונית יותר מבחינה איכותית .

• Adam Hollowell

Much has been made of Moana as a different kind of Disney princess. This essay suggests that Chief Tui is a different kind of Disney father. While Chief Tui exhibits misogynist behavior through the majority of Disney's Moana, he learns at the film's conclusion to "make way" for Moana's skillful sea voyaging leadership. Philosopher Kate Manne's account of the "logic of misogyny" supplies criteria for moral judgment of Chief Tui's early misogynist behavior and later conversion to a profeminist masculinity. The essay proposes aspects of a profeminist ethic of making way and explores connections between gender and other social forces of oppression in Moana. It highlights the profeminist ethical imperative and political opportunity that Chief Tui represents where powerful men learn to make way for feminist women.

• Noha Youssef

Disney is one of the world's largest media firms. Disney has adapted many of the social oral stories animated full-length films that have become a common kind of entertainment for kids since the 1970s. This research evaluates the princesses' stereotypes in one old movie "Snow White And The Seven Dwarfs", comparing it to one new movie "Brave ",then analyze how these two princesses were portrayed and how these stereotypes have evolved and modified over time.

• Sotirios Kimon Mouzakis

This chapter analyses heroism in Disney's animated Princess Line movies. The chapter problematizes the idea that these movies promote feminist Princess Line heroines by analysing the transcultural frictions that are created by the ethnic and cultural diversification of the Princess Line stories and the way they absorb 'other' cultures. Discussing the Princess Line movie Mulan (1998), and a more recent one, Moana (2016), it shows that the films establish female heroes with strong fighter and leadership qualities but fail to depict local Chinese and Polynesian cultures in any authentic or culturally sensitive way. The chapter argues that despite being marketed as feminist and multicultural, both movies represent and export Western girl hero fantasies in exotic dress-up.

• Rebecca Stanton

This chapter focuses on WDAS's depictions of hunting and fishing. Part I of this chapter explores the history and current discussions surrounding these two practices. Then, Part II documents the frequency with which these practices have been depicted in WDAS films. Next, Part III explores how WDAS has portrayed hunting and fishing, paying particular attention to how hunted and fished animals have been depicted, as well as the portrayal of humans who participate in these practices. Finally, Part IV concentrates on how hunting and fishing were portrayed in 2003's Brother Bear. This chapter concludes by arguing that the manner in which WDAS has depicted hunting and fishing reflects common speciesist attitudes. Additionally, WDAS has helped to sustain these speciesist attitudes with their own texts.

• Rebecca Stanton

This chapter examines depictions of animal food farming, encompassing meat production, dairy farming, farmhouses, farmers, and the various species that usually live on farms in WDAS films. Part I explores the history of animal farming, and the common tropes evident in notable cultural representations of it. Part II documents how often animal farming has been depicted in WDAS films. Part III analyses key depictions of farming within WDAS films. Finally, Part IV examines Home on the Range (2004), a WDAS film set on a dairy farm that reinforces many misconceptions about the farming industry. This chapter concludes by arguing that WDAS's image of animal farming has been consistently saccharine even though life has become far worse for farm animals since WDAS has been producing films.

Ever since Disney Princesses were established as a marketing brand in 2000, they have become a famous 'phenomenon' that has been commercially successful, popular, and adored, but one that has also received much criticism from scholars and consumers alike. Although audience research has gained increasing recognition in recent years, this field's attention has focused mainly on the 'West', neglecting Eastern European—including child—audiences. Moreover, while there are several scholarly examinations of Disney Princess films, these studies mainly employ textual analysis (Escalada-Cordova 2018; Whelan 2014; Wilde 2014) rather than conducting empirical research. Instead of reading for the audiences and making assumptions about how they interpret fame from a media text, in this case Disney Princesses, it is therefore crucial to ask audience members themselves, as Sonia Livingstone observes, 'it is established that audiences are plural in their decodings, that their cultural context matters, and that they often disagree with textual analyses' (2008, p. 4). By drawing upon diverse scholarly works within the field of celebrity studies as well as undertaking an audience study with Eastern European—specifically Hungarian—tweens, the objective of this article is twofold. On the one hand, this paper argues that animated characters are indeed entitled to have a fame status. It does so by deploying theorisations that distinguish between heroes and celebrities (North, Bland, and Ellis 2005), celebrities and stars (G. Turner, Bonner, and Marshall 2000), and differentiate among animated characters considered as 'celeactors' (Rojek 2001), or as stars (Ellis 2007; McGowan 2018; 2019). On the other hand, through the analysis of audiences' diverse perceptions of fame, illustrated by Hungarian tweens' understanding of Disney Princesses—an enormous global media phenomenon—this article provides a key case study for the aforementioned argument while highlighting the features of celebrity culture that are specific to Hungary. Taking into account Hungarian tweens' approaches towards Disney Princesses, while considering that Disney is claimed to have 'immense power over childhood culture' (Garofalo 2013) and that '[t]he celebrity is simultaneously a construction of the dominant culture and a construction of the subordinate audiences of the culture' (Marshall 2014, p. 48), this paper starts revealing the diverse ways in which different cultures conceptualise celebrity notions.

• Tim Luisi

Few studies to date have examined Indigenous characters in children's media. Stereotyping or omission of underrepresented groups contributes to symbolic annihilation of underrepresented groups, such as Indigenous persons. Through a qualitative textual design, the researcher explored how Western-Hemisphere Indigenous masculinity was framed in five Disney animated films. While Indigenous characters were positively portrayed, the researcher found displays of stereotypes, and an absence of character growth.

• Naima Alam

Animierte Lehrfilme, die junge Frauen über Gesundheit und Hygiene unterrichten, gehen mit Disneys Story of Menstruation bis in die 1940er Jahre zurück. Diese Filme zielen darauf ab, dem weiblichen Publikum Anregungen zur kontinuierlichen Verbesserung ihres gegenwärtigen Lebensstils zu geben. Die UNICEF-Initiative „Meena Communication" (MCI) aus den 1990er Jahren hat gezeigt, dass die Schaffung positiver geschlechtsspezifischer Rollenmodelle diese Botschaften nachhaltiger und dauerhafter machen kann. Im Artikel werden sechs Filme aus der Meena-Animationsserie (IN/BD/NP/PK 1991–) unter Verwendung feministischer Literatur aus nächster Nähe gelesen. Es wird gezeigt, dass ein tiefes Verständnis des Publikums und seiner Kultur dazu beitragen kann, Figuren zu schaffen, die beim Publikum Resonanz finden, als Darstellung ihrer selbst und als mögliches Streben in ihrem Leben.

With a sample of over 250 films released in the U.S. from 2000 to 2014, and with the benefit of over fifty years of feminist film theorizing on the issue of the characterization of women in both Hollywood and foreign films, our analysis investigates whether a particular film genre-romance movies-has begun to provide a diverse range of depictions of its female characters or has it continued to favour a stereotyped understanding of woman as subservient to the men in their lives. The central focus of our analysis concerns the ways in which romantic couples exhibit behaviours that the sociological and psychological literatures describe as either 'masculine' or 'feminine'. In addition to summarizing these data, we also describe at length a number of films that illustrate the various gender stereotypes. We conclude our analysis by addressing the thorny question of whether and how Hollywood movies could lessen the extent of sexism and gender inequality in Western society. ARTICLE HISTORY

Participatory culture (Jenkins, 2006) has opened up the possibility of prosumption for the youngest users, who use social media as a tool for building their (gender) identities. At the same time, as part of a juvenile digital culture they share with their audiences, influencers, and more specifically YouTubers, they act as role models in this process. While YouTube and other social media continue to reproduce the post-feminist sensibility, recent studies indicate that it also embraces manifestations of popular feminism. This research focuses on two popular female Spanish YouTubers, Dulceida and Yellow Mellow, and its aim is to analyse how they build and represent their gender identity. Particular emphasis is put on the negotiation and/or integration of feminist precepts into those identities, in order to determine whether they contribute to the creation of new gender imaginaries. A qualitative methodology, which includes four models of analysis, is used to cover the representations from the audio-visual, socio-semiotic and textual aspects. The results show a certain ambivalence regarding gender, since popular feminism and queer theory coexist with postfeminism, and values such as diversity with the acritical acceptance of individualism.

• Kathryn E. Frazier

This article describes the role of gender socialization in the development and health of girls in childhood and adolescence. Gender socialization can be broadly defined as the process through which individuals learn about and internalize the norms and behaviors associated with their perceived gender. While debate exists surrounding the mechanisms through which girls come to display psychological and behavioral gender characteristics, robust evidence suggests that gender socialization has a lasting impact on girls' development and well-being. This article reviews prominent theories of gender socialization and surveys the research detailing the primary sources of gender information, the developmental milestones in girls' socialization, and the notable impacts that gender socialization has on girls' mental and physical functioning and well-being.

• Federica Giannelli

In Disney movies such as Frozen, more rounded female characters challenge the myth of the passive Disney Princess, who becomes an action heroine through a feminist revamping. A similar trend is found in Disney's new Star Wars movies. However, Disney's newly found inclusiveness seem to serve as a marketing strategy exploiting female audiences' desire to recognize themselves in major movie characters. This chapter will analyze how Disney's new "Princessification" trend appears in Star Wars: Forces of Destiny, a children-targeted online anthology series that features major Star Wars female characters. By referring to Jean Baudrillard's notion of simulacrum, I will discuss how in Forces of Destiny characters such as Rey, Leila, and Padmé simulate empowered role models, but fail to influence the Star Wars canon.

• Veronica Hefner
• Valerie Ellen Kretz

This study is a cross-sectional survey investigating the links between viewing Disney princess films and reports of romantic beliefs, relationship-contingent self-esteem, and attitudes relating to masculine courtship strategies. Results from the survey of 438 undergraduate students indicate a positive association between viewing Disney princess films and reports of relationship-contingent self-esteem, particularly for men, and endorsement of masculine strategies about courtship. Findings are discussed in the context of cultivation and social cognitive theory.

• Qurat-ul-Ain Malik
• Bushra Hameed-ur-Rahman

The research was aimed at analysing gender portrayal in TV drama in Pakistan over a period of five decades from its very inception in the late 1960's till 2017. The research explored what types of gender stereotypes were being propagated in the prime time drama serials on the State owned TV channel, PTV which was the only platform available for most part of this duration. The methodology adopted for the research was quantitative in nature and involved a content analysis of the most popular Urdu serials aired between 1968 and 2017. The research focused on the three main characters in each drama and the total sample comprised 72 characters. These characters were analysed in a total of 4834 scenes to observe the display of gender stereotypes. The findings indicated that although overall both the genders were displaying their gender specific stereotypes yet some stereotypes such as bravery and aggressiveness were not being displayed by males and passivity, victimization and fearfulness were not being displayed by females. Later the 50 year time period was sub-divided into five decades to observe whether there had been a change over the years keeping in view the massive changes which had taken place in society. Findings indicated that although there were differences in gender depiction between the five decades for both the genders yet the changes were not linear which pointed to the role of other factors such as government policies which could have contributed to the increasing and decreasing stereotyping over the years.

• Rebecca Stanton

This book critically examines how Walt Disney Animation Studios has depicted – and sometimes failed to depict – different forms of harming and objectifying non-human animals in their films. Each chapter addresses a different form of animal harm and objectification through the theories of speciesism, romanticism, and the 'collapse of compassion' effect, from farming, hunting and fishing, to clothing, work, and entertainment. Stanton lucidly presents the dichotomy between depictions of higher order, anthropomorphised and neotonised animal characters and that of lower-order species, showing furthermore how these depictions are closely linked to changing social attitudes about acceptable forms of animal harm. An engaging and novel contribution to the field of Critical Animal Studies, this book explores the use of animals not only in Disney's best known animated films such as 101 Dalmatians, but also lesser known features including Home on the Range and Fun and Fancy Free. A quantitative appendix supplying data on how often each animal species appears and the amount of times animal harm or objectification is depicted in over fifty films provides an invaluable resource and addition to scholars working in both Disney and animal studies.

• Tracey L. Mollet

There are a number of significant social, economic and political developments that characterise this era of Disney fairy tales. Each of these shifts also reflects a concurrent transformation in the scope and nature of the American Dream at this stage in America's cultural history. The impact of Hurricane Katrina; the economic crash of 2008; the election of Barack Obama; third wave feminism; and the legalisation of gay marriage all play into the narratives of The Princess and the Frog (Clements and Musker 2009), Tangled (Greno and Howard 2010) and Frozen (Buck and Lee 2013). Amidst this substantial degree of change, there remained a degree of socially conservative nostalgia. Nostalgia had been a prolific theme in American popular culture since the break of the twenty-first century and, indeed, continued to figure into the kinds of narratives seen in these Disney productions. The Disney fairy tale thus continues to be the site of an interplay between nostalgia for the past and progression towards a new inclusive America. This era is characterised as one of renewal for the Disney studios, as it is noted that the studio 'renewed' its traditional interest in fairy tale narratives following the success of Enchanted (Lima 2007).

• Tracey L. Mollet

This chapter provides an outline of the primary characteristics of Depression and post-war society in the United States, including political changes, gender roles and cultural shifts. This provides the contextual backdrop for Disney's first three fairy tale films: Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (Hand et al. 1937), Cinderella (Geronimi et al. 1950) and Sleeping Beauty (Geronimi 1959). The analysis posits that each of these films features a progressive 'rags to riches' heroine, trapped within their current setting and desiring of a new life beside a man they love. Alongside the underdogs (dwarfs, mice and fairies), they fight anti-American forces in pursuit of their happily ever after: the American Dream. Most importantly, however, these fairy tales are anti-royalist. They reject the conservative, oppressive impositions placed upon their heroes and heroines by the 'old' generation of royals, in favour of a new, progressive approach to marriage. This constitutes a Disney fairy tale which is liberal in outlook, emphasising choice and freedom, but that functions solely within the nostalgic framework of the patriarchal order.

• Tracey L. Mollet

This chapter interrogates the adaptations of European fairy tale narratives released during Disney's most critically and commercially successful era: 1989–1999. By the time the Walt Disney Studio released The Little Mermaid in 1989 (Clements and Musker 1989), things had changed considerably for the United States and for the company itself. The election of Ronald Reagan in 1980 brought about a new popular conservatism in American society, the influence of which was felt into the presidency of George H.W. Bush from 1989 to 1993 and beyond. Reagan's claims to 'make America great again' issued forth a nostalgia for traditional family values, accompanied by an anti-feminist backlash. This socially conservative framework adapted to contemporary life through a shift towards post-feminism: women could choose to be whatever they wanted in modern America. This fusion between past and present, traditionalism and progress, manifests within The Little Mermaid (1989) and Beauty and the Beast (Trousdale and Wise 1991) as heroines show increased agency and ambition, but conclude their narratives in heterosexual marriage. This increased role for women was recognised within the popular liberalism of Clinton in the 1990s. Furthermore, as a result of economic changes brought about by Reagan's neoliberal embrace of deregulation and marketisation, the American Dream itself was privatised in the 1980s. The Disney fairy tale is thus significantly more globalised in scope, emphasising the power of America's market forces and consumerism as the American Dream reached into the post-industrial era.

• Angela Mcrobbie

This article is presented as an intervention in the field of feminist media and cultural studies with particular reference to consumer culture. It is concerned with the seeming evasion of critique which can be detected in a number of recent feminist responses to the way in which modalities of 'popular feminism' have found themselves incorporated into women's genres of television, such as, in particular, the US series Sex in the City. This usage or instrumentalization of feminism (in its most conventionally liberal feminist guise) also provides corporate culture with the means of presenting itself to young women as their ally and even champion of 'girls' while at the same time earning seeming approval for adopting the mantle of social responsibility, which makes the concept of popular feminism more problematic than it first appeared. Such appropriation of popular feminist discourse by the commercial domain prompts a self-critique on the part of the author alongside an analysis of recent approaches toward consumer culture in cultural studies. The article continues by presenting a schematic account of how the commercial domain increasingly supplants state and public sector institutions in the intensity and dedication of its address to girls and young women. Whilst some may argue that the intersection of youthful femininity and the commercial sphere is not a new phenomenon, what is being explored here is the connection between this intensification of attention and the logic of current neo-liberal economic rationalities. The argument is, therefore, that it is by these means including the instrumentalization of a specific modality of 'feminism' that there emerges into existence a neo-liberal culture, with global aspirations, which has as its ideal subject the category of 'girl'.

[the authors'] research project, Cultural Indicators, has tracked the central streams of television's dramatic content since 1967 and has explored the consequences of growing up and living with television since 1974 / [Cultural Indicators] investigated the extent to which television viewing contributes to audience conceptions and actions in areas such as gender, minority and age-role stereotypes, health, science, the family, educational achievement and aspirations, politics, religion, and other topics, all of which are increasingly also being examined in cross-cultural comparative contexts / summarize and illustrate our theory of the dynamics of the cultivation process, both in the US and around the world (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

• Keisha L. Hoerrner

While television cartoons have served as focal points for researchers concerned about gender depictions in Disney works, their film counterparts have received little attention. This study analyzed Disney full-length animated films to identify the gendered "world view" they provide for young viewers. Prosocial and antisocial behaviors were examined to determine the prevalence of gender stereotypes within the Alms. Specific attention was paid to gender issues regarding victims of antisocial acts, contrasts between heroes and heroines, and differences between female and male villains.

• Mia Adessa Towbin
• Shelley Haddock
• Toni Schindler Zimmerman
• Litsa RenÉe Tanner

The Disney Corporation is one of the largest media companies in the world. Disney's full-length animated films have been a popular form of children's entertainment for more than 60 years. No research to date has examined the portrayals of the organizing societal principles of gender, race, age, and sexual orientation across a wide sample of these films. This study examines the portrayal of these organizing principles in a sample of 26 full-length animated Disney films. Findings indicate that gender, racial, and cultural stereotypes have persisted over time in Disney films. Few examples of positive portrayals emerged, but were increasingly common in later films. Marginalized groups were portrayed negatively, rarely, or not at all. Clinical implications for therapists are provided.

• Scott Coltrane

Men and women are increasingly likely to pursue careers in elite professions, but gendered expectations about homemaking and breadwinning continue to shape opportunities for professional advancement and individual decisions to marry, have children, regulate employment hours, or use "family-friendly" programs. This article describes how the Victorian ideology of separate spheres and other gendered beliefs and practices have spawned a modern-day "career advancement double standard" in which professional women who marry or have children are considered less serious about their careers, whereas professional men who marry or become fathers are considered more likely candidates for promotion. Trends in the general population toward more gender equality in labor force attachment and family labor sharing are compared to slower changes among elite professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and bankers.

• Meredith Li-Vollmer
• Mark E. LaPointe

This study investigates the ways in which gender transgression and "queering" are used as an indicator of deviance and villainy in children's animated full-length movies. Through an analysis of male villains in 10 full-length animated movies, this article examines the ways in which gender transgression creates what is termed a "villain-as-sissy" archetype that signifies villains as deviant and enhances the positive gender qualities of heroes. Further, this study discusses the potential impact this pattern of representation may have in terms of limiting and reinforcing heteronormative gender roles and promoting negative associations about gays.

• Kevin Durkin
• Bradley Nugent

This study examined four- and five-year-oldchildren's predictions concerning the sexof personscarrying out a variety of common activities andoccupations on television. The purpose of the study wasto investigate the possibility that young childrenmay have stereotyped beliefs and expectations which canbe applied in the course of television viewing.Preschoolers of European Australian background viewed short scenes establishing the need for avariety of activities and in each case were asked toindicate who would perform the activity: a man, a womanor both. The children's responses revealed strong gender stereotyped expectations, and these werestrongest in the case of masculine stereotypedactivities. With age, children were more likely to makestereotyped judgments about the ability of males andfemales to perform the activities. The children'sestimates of their own future competence in theactivities also indicated stereotypical beliefs, withthe older girls more likelyto rejectmasculineactivities. It is argued that children's preconceivedexpectations furnish an organizational basis for theirinterpretation of gender related information intelevision.

• Celeste Lacroix

Because of the success of the first six animated feature films produced in the "new era" of Disney animation (The Little Mermaid, 1989; Beauty and the Beast, 1991; Aladdin, 1993; The Lion King, 1994; Pocahontas, 1995; The Hunchback of Notre Dame, 1996) and their mass merchandising, Disney animated characters became ubiquitous for children of the 1990s. Although Bell, Haas, and Sells (1995) suggested that Disney films present a "sanitization of violence, sexuality, and political struggle concomitant with an erasure or repression of difference" (p. 7), an increasing emphasis on sexuality and the exotic is evident in the construction of the female heroines in these films, particularly in the female characters of color. This article analyzes what may be referred to in Said's (1978) terminology as the orientalization of women of color in five of these six Disney animated films and posits how these representations of gender and cultural difference operate within Disney's consumerist framework, which provides "dreams and products through forms of popular culture in which kids are willing to materially and emotionally invest" (Giroux, 1999, p. 89). Using a critical lens, I interrogate the unity of images regarding gender and race that these Disney texts offer and the ways in which these meanings operate within the larger socio-historical framework regarding women of color and the notion of Whiteness.

• Kent A. Ono
• Derek T. Buescher

This essay examines the commodification of Pocahontas surrounding the 1995 Disney film. Pocahontas. Through an examination of Pocahontas products and popular cultural discourses about Pocahontas, the essay develops a theory of the "cipher"; as a late‐capitalist commodity form. Theorization of the cipher helps explain how companies market a field of goods in relationship to a single product, such as a film. Marketing campaigns draw on generic forms and figures that can be easily reproduced and identified. Furthermore, through the marketing of Pocahontas goods and popular discourses, Disney and the general mainstream commodity culture construct a market for children versus parents. And while the commodity world of Pocahontas uses utopic appeals to sell products, through their appropriation of feminism and Native American culture and history, Pocahontas products and discourses contribute to the material oppression of women and Native Americans, generally, and Native American women in particular.

• Rebecca-Anne C. Do Rozario

The popularity of the princess in Disney feature animation, merchandise, theme parks, and ice shows makes her one of the best known models of princess construction. This analysis of the Disney princess looks at her in terms of her position in the kingdom, her relationships to femme fatales, fathers, and bad boys, and her performance in a genre largely shaped by film musical and fairytale.

• Terry Frueh
• Paul E. McGhee

Tested the hypothesis that the amount of time spent watching TV is significantly related to the strength of traditional sex-role development. Data from 80 kindergartners and 2nd, 4th, and 6th graders support the hypothesis and suggest that this relationship holds equally for both sexes and does not change with increasing age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

• Tannis MacBeth Williams

The paper provides a review and critical synthesis of research and theory dealing with the processes involved in children's learning from television. It asks how and what children learn from television, and at what ages television is a more or less powerful teacher. The focus is on assessing evidence that television can play a positive teaching role. It is suggested that a threshold model may be more appropriate than a linear model for evaluating television's impact on viewers. It is concluded that television can play a positive role in children's learning, but given typical North American media diets and current television content, the opposite has been true for most children.

• Campbell Leaper
• Lisa Breed
• Laurie Hoffman
• Carly Ann Perlman

This study examined the gender-stereotyped content of children's TV network cartoons across 4 genres: traditional adventure (e.g., "Spiderman"), nontraditional adventure (e.g., "Reboot"), educational/family (e.g., "Magic School Bus"), and comedy ("Animaniacs"). Acting negatively, showing physical aggression, and being a victim were significantly less likely in the educational/family genre cartoons than any of the other three genres. Demonstrating romantic behavior was significantly more likely in the traditional adventure and the comedy genres than the other genres. Male characters were represented in cartoons significantly more than were female characters, but only in the traditional adventure and the comedy genres. Male characters were more likely than were female characters to use physical aggression, but only in the traditional adventure genre. Behaviors that were relatively more likely among female characters across genres included showing fear, acting romantic, being polite, and acting supportive. Most of the significant differences were also associated with very large effect sizes.

• Kevin Durkin

This paper is the second in a three-part review series of television and sex-role acquisition. In the preceding paper, evidence was reviewed which establishes that much of television sex-role content is highly stereotyped. This paper points out that the effects of this content upon young viewers have often been assumed rather than demonstrated. The less extensive but growing literature on the relationship between television viewing and sex-role development is reviewed. Correlational and experimental studies are discussed. It is argued that the evidence of modest associations between amount of viewing and degree of sex typing claimed in some studies must be interpreted with caution, and it is pointed out that correlations have not always been found. Some interesting experimental work is taken as indicative of possible effects, but it is stressed that there is a fundamental need for more sophisticated theoretical accounts than the assumption that viewing time and effects are linearly related. Theoretical prospects are reviewed with reference to recent work in social-cognitive development.

• Sherryl Browne Graves

Televised role portrayals and interracial interactions, as sources of vicarious experience, contribute to the development of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination among children. The first section of this article reviews the amount and nature of racial/ethnic content on television, including limited portrayals of racial/ethnic groups and of interracial/ethnic interaction. The second section focuses on theoretical models that help explain television's role in the development, maintenance, and modification of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. The third section addresses research on the effects of television in altering stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination, with particular attention given to media intervention programs specifically designed to address these issues (Sesame Street and Different and the Same). This article concludes with a discussion of suggestions for future research.

• Mary Beth Oliver
• Stephen Green

This study examined gender differences in children's responses to animated scenes from an action adventure versus a sad film, and to animated previews of a prototypical male versus female movie. Females were more likely than males to express sadness in response to the sad scene, and gender differences in intensities of sadness increased with age. Children were much more likely to stereotype the male preview as most liked by other boys, whereas the majority of children perceived the female preview as liked by either gender equally. In terms of enjoyment of the male and female previews, gender differences in enjoyment of the male preview were apparent only among children who perceived the film as more appealing to boys, and gender differences in enjoyment of the female preview were apparent only among children who perceived the film as more appealing to girls. Implications for children's programming are discussed.

• Teresa Thompson
• Eugenia Zerbinos

This study is an update of research done primarily in the 1970s on gender representation in children's cartoons. In the present study, 175 episodes of 41 different cartoons were coded for numbers and demographic characteristics of male, female, and androgynous characters. Behaviors, communication characteristics, and total talk time of male and female characters were coded, along with copyright year and country of origin. Results indicated notable discrepancies between prominence and portrayal of male and female characters. Both male and female characters were portrayed stereotypically. Compared to female characters, male characters were given much more prominence, appeared more frequently, engaged in more of almost all of the noted behaviors, and talked significantly more. When male or female behavior and communication variables were divided by number of male or female characters or by total talk time, results indicated consistency with gender role stereotypes. Comparisons of pre- and post-1980 cartoons, however, indicated significant change toward a less stereotypical portrayal of the characters, particularly female characters.

• Florence L. Geis
• Virginia Brown
• Joyce Jennings (Walstedt
• Natalie Porter

This study suggests that sex stereotypes implicitly enacted, but never explicitly articulated, in TV commercials may inhibit women's achievement aspirations. Men and women (N=180) viewed locally produced replicas of four current, sex-stereotyped commercials, or four replicas that were identical except that the sex roles were reversed, or (control) named their favorite TV programs. All subjects then wrote an essay imagining their lives 10 years from now. The essays were coded for achievement and homemaking themes. Women who viewed traditional commercials deemphasized achievement in favor of homemaking, compared to men and compared to women who had seen reversed role commercials. The reversed role commercials eliminated the sex difference in net achievement focus. Control subjects were indistinguishable from their same-sex counterparts in the traditional condition. The results identified some social changes needed to make equality of opportunity a social reality for women as well as men.

This chapter focuses on the division of labor between women and men and the distinction commonly drawn between domestic work and paid work. Work performed directly in the service of families – including housework and childcare – is often unacknowledged because of cultural assumptions that a wife or mother should do it in the privacy of the home. Paid work, on the other hand, is much more public and historically associated with men. Holding a job and earning a salary has been considered to be a husband's traditional family obligation, whereas tending to home and children traditionally has been considered a wife's primary obligation (even if she also works outside the home).

• Steven Eggermont

A longitudinal study was conducted to explore the relationship between television viewing and beliefs about expressing sexual desire in dating situations. In three consecutive years, a panel of early adolescents (N = 883) and a panel of middle adolescents (N = 651) rated the effectiveness of a sexual approach and a romantic approach. Latent growth curve analyses indicate that between the ages of 12 and 15 there is a growing belief in the effectiveness of the sexual approach, which was related to respondents' maturity status but unrelated to television viewing, and a weakening belief in the effectiveness of the romantic strategy, a decline that appeared to be quickened by television viewing in the female sample and slowed down by television viewing in the male sample. Between the ages of 15 and 18 television viewing reinforces a respondent's belief in the effectiveness of both the sexual and the romantic strategy.

• Mary Claire Morr Serewicz
• Elaine Gale

This study sought to discover whether variations in relevant features of a first date would produce differences in young adults' first-date scripts. In responding to scenarios that manipulated gender of the date initiator, alcohol availability, and relationship type, 209 college students in the Midwestern United States generated lists including an average of 21 actions they expected to occur on the date. Findings showed a trend toward traditional gender roles for male and female date partners, though some complexity related to sexual behavior and the gender of the date initiator was found. In addition, the context of the date influenced the date script to a great extent, whereas the type of relationship between the date partners had little effect.

The 45 fully animated, theatrical release feature films produced by Disney between 1937 and 2006 were analyzed for child maltreatment content. All child and adolescent characters were counted and coded for age, role type and incidents of child maltreatment, following US National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS) criteria. A total of 561 incidents of child maltreatment were identified among the 1369 child characters in the films. A total of 26 of the 42 (62%) main child characters were maltreated at least once. Findings are discussed in the context of previous research. Implications of the findings for understanding potential effects on film viewers' understandings of issues around child maltreatment are outlined.

• Lauren Dundes

Disney's animated heroine Pocahontas has been touted as a new type of protagonist differing from her predecessors whose lives revolve around men. Pocahontas' romance eventually does become subordinate to her role in protecting the social fabric of her village. Yet in placing the needs of her community before her own personal desires, she fulfills societal expectations of today wherein young women are supposed to progress from selfish absorption in relationships to selfless dedication nurturing others. Pocahontas, then, models the submersion of a young woman's desires to allow a commitment to selfless altruism.

• Patrick E. Shrout
• Joseph L. Fleiss

Reliability coefficients often take the form of intraclass correlation coefficients. In this article, guidelines are given for choosing among 6 different forms of the intraclass correlation for reliability studies in which n targets are rated by k judges. Relevant to the choice of the coefficient are the appropriate statistical model for the reliability study and the applications to be made of the reliability results. Confidence intervals for each of the forms are reviewed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).

The world of television activates, cultivates, and alters the gender schemata that children bring to the viewing situation.

• Kevin Durkin

Television has earned considerable public and academic criticism in recent years for the alleged bias in its sex-role content. A fundamental concern of many critics is with the representation of male and female roles that confronts children. This paper reviews the evidence accumulating from numerous content analyses of both adult and children's television. Overall, the evidence confirms that there are marked differences in the ways the medium presents the sexes. These differences are both quantitative and qualitative but the general pattern at either level is to present males as dominant and females as nurturant and complementary. Some qualifications, exceptions and gaps in the literature are discussed. The paper is the first of a three-part review series of television and sex-role acquisition: the subsequent papers will review respectively the effects of sex-stereotyped TV content upon children and the prospects for counter-stereotyped programmes aiming to modify young viewers' beliefs and attitudes.

• Carol Martin
• Diane N. Ruble
• Joel Szkrybalo

The contribution of cognitive perspectives (cognitive-developmental theory and gender schema theory) to a contemporary understanding of gender development is evaluated. Recent critiques of cognitive approaches are discussed and empirical evidence is presented to counter these critiques. Because of the centrality of early gender development to the cognitive perspective, the latest research is reviewed on how infants and toddlers discriminate the sexes and learn the attributes correlated with sex. The essence of cognitive approaches--emphasis on motivational consequences of gender concepts; the active, self-initiated view of development; and focus on developmental patterns-is highlighted and contrasted with social-cognitive views. The value of cognitive theories to the field is illustrated, and recommendations are made concerning how to construct comprehensive, integrative perspectives of gender development.

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• G Gerbner
• L Gross
• M Morgan
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The gendered world of Disney: A content analysis of gender themes in full-length animated Disney feature films

• B A Wiserma

Wiserma, B. A. (2001). The gendered world of Disney: A content analysis of gender themes in full-length animated Disney feature films [Abstract].

The social construction and socialization of gender during development

• C Leaper

Leaper, C. (2000). The social construction and socialization of gender during development. In P. H. Miller & E. Kofsky Scholnick (Eds.), Toward a feminist developmental psychology (pp. 127-152). Florence: Taylor & Frances/Routledge.

Gender and the division of labor Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 401–422) New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1467-5_17 About Disney The princess and the magic kingdom: Beyond nostalgia, the function of the Disney Princess

• S Coltrane
• K Y Shih

Coltrane, S., & Shih, K. Y. (2010). Gender and the division of labor. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 401–422). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1467-5_17. Disney International. (2010). Retrieved from http://www. disneyinternational.com/ Disney Princess. (2010). About Disney. Retrieved from http://disney. go.com/princess/#/home/ Do Rozario, R. C. (2004). The princess and the magic kingdom: Beyond nostalgia, the function of the Disney Princess. Women's Studies in Communication, 27, 34–59.

Assessing the feminist revolution: The presence and absence of gender in theory and practice

• M M Ferree
• S R Khan
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• MM Ferree

Ferree, M. M., Khan, S. R., & Morimoto, S. A. (2007). Assessing the feminist revolution: The presence and absence of gender in theory and practice. In C. Calhoun (Ed.), Sociology in America: A History (pp. 438-479). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Young women and consumer culture doi:1.1080/09502380802245803 First-date scripts: Gender roles, context, and relationship

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Elite careers and family commitment: It's (still) about gender. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political

• S Coltrane

Coltrane, S. (2004). Elite careers and family commitment: It's (still) about gender. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e, 5 9 6, 2 1 4 – 2 2

What's wrong with Cinderella? New York Times Magazine

• P Orenstein

Orenstein, P. (2006, December). What's wrong with Cinderella? New York Times Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/ 2006/12/24/magazine/24princess.t.html

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• P R Orenstein
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Gender and the division of labor Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 401–422)

• S Coltrane
• K Y Shih

Coltrane, S., & Shih, K. Y. (2010). Gender and the division of labor. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 401–422). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1467-5_17.

The princess and the magic kingdom: Beyond nostalgia, the function of the Disney Princess. Women's Studies in Communication

• Disney Princess

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Kinderculture: The corporate construction of childhood

• H A Giroux
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Giroux, H. A. (1997). Are Disney movies good for your kids? In S. R. Steinberg & J. L. Kincheloe (Eds.), Kinderculture: The corporate construction of childhood (pp. 53-67). Boulder: Westview.

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Sterotype of Teh Disney Princess and Sex

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225809803_Gender_Role_Portrayal_and_the_Disney_Princesses

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